II. METHOD, APPROACH, DESIGN, PROCEDURE, AND TECHNIQUE
The definition of approach is adopted from Anthony’s definition. Approach deals with: (a) a theory of the nature of language, which include an account of the nature of the language proficiency and an account of the basic units of language structures; and (b) a theory of the nature of language learning, which is include an account of the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning and an account of the condition that allows for successful use of these processes.
The term design deals with (a) the general and specific objectives of the method; (b) a syllabus model, which consists of criteria for the selection and organization of linguistics and/or subject matter content; (c) types of learning and teaching activities, i.e. kinds of tasks and practice activities to be employed in the classroom and in materials; (d) learner role, which includes types of learning tasks set for learners, degree of control learners have over the content of learning, patterns of learner groupings that are recommended or implied, degree to which learners influence the learning of others and the view of the learner as a professor, performer, initiator, problem solver, etc.; teacher role, which includes types of function teachers fulfill, degree of teacher influence over learning, degree to which the teacher determines the content of learning, and types of interaction between teachers and learners; and (f) the role of instructional materials, which includes primary function materials, the form materials take,(e.g. textbook, audiovisual), relation of materials to other input, and assumptions made abut teachers and learners.
Procedure deals with classroom techniques, practices, and behaviors observed when the method is used. This includes resources in term of time, space, and equipment used by the teacher, interactional patterns observed in lessons, and tactics and strategies used by teachers and learners when the method is being used.
Richards and Roger’s model can be seen in the following diagram
method
In the beginning of 21st century, the concept of method seems to be no longer the central issue in language teaching practice. Brown (2001: 15-16), therefore, proposes an adjustment by adding and refining some of the terms. Method is a generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistics objectives. Method tends to be concerned primarily with teacher and student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing and materials. They are almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences in a variety of contexts.
Technique refers to any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or tasks used in the language classroom for realizing classroom objectives.
Various language teaching methods have been developed for TESL/TEFL. Kumaravadivelu (1994: 29) classifies the methods into three groups, namely: language-centered methods, learner-centered methods, and learning-centered methods.
Language-centered methods seek to provide opportunities for learners to practice preselected, presequenced linguistic structures trough form-focused exercises, assuming that preoccupation with form will ultimately lead to L-2 mastery. The teacher’s task is t introduce grammatical structure and vocabulary items one at a time and help learners practice them until they internalize the L-2 system. Included in these methods are he Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method, and Audiolingual Method.
Learner-centered methods seek to provide opportunities for learners to participate in open-ended meaningful interaction through language learning tasks, assuming that a preoccupation with meaning making will ultimately lead to L-2 mastery. The teacher’s responsibility is to create conditions in which learners engage in meaningful problem-posing/solving activities. Examples of this group are the Silent Way (Gatteguo), Suggestopedia (Lozanov), Total Physical Response (Asher), Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrell), and Counseling Learning Method or Community Language Learning (Curran). Nunan (1989: 97) labels these methods as “designer” methods.
Learning-centered methods seek to provide opportunities for learners to practice preselected, presequenced linguistic structures and communicative notions through function-focused activities, assuming that preoccupation with form and function will ultimately lead to L-2 mastery. The teacher’s task is to introduce formal and functional items one at a time and help learners practice them until they internalize the L-2 system. An example of this group is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
Task 2
What is the importance of knowing the term method and its components for an English teacher?
III. LANGUAGE-CENTERED METHODS
The following is an outline of a number of language-centered methods or traditional language teaching methods, as quoted from Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979). The term approach (instead of method) is used here following Anthony’s idea.
Grammar Translation Approach
Typically used in teaching Greek and Latin, and generalized in modern languages.
1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue; with little achieve use of the target language.
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form of infection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.
7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
Grammar translation method is the oldest method known for teaching a foreign language. This method emphasized mastery of knowledge about a language and did not aim at mastering productive skills (speaking and writing). This method was criticized when there was a need to have productive skills in learning modern languages.
Direct Method
A reacting to the extension of the above approach to the teaching of modern languages.
1. Lessons begin with a brief anecdote or dialogue in the target language, and in modern conversational style.
2. This material is first presented orally with actions or pictures.
3. The mother tongue is never used (there is no translation).
4. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the anecdote or dialogue, and answered in the target language.
5. Grammar is taught inductively; rule generalization comes only after experience.
6. Verbs are used first, and systematically conjugated much later.
7. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure; literary texts are not analyzed grammatically.
8. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively.
Reading Approach
This approach is selected with practical reasons, for people who do not travel abroad, reading is one of the usable skills.
1. The objective in priority order are (a) reading ability, (b) current and historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.
2. Only the grammar necessary for the grammar is taught.
3. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation.
4. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done, both in and out class.
5. The vocabulary is expended as fast as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important than grammatical skills.
6. The vocabulary of the early readings is strictly controlled.
7. Translation reappears as a respectable classroom procedure.
Audiolingual Approach
A reaction to the Reading Approach, much is taken from the Direct Method, the rest from behaviorism.
1. New material is presented in dialogue form.
2. There is dependence in mimicry, memorization of set phrases and overlearning (i.e. it is believed that language learning is habit formation).
3. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time.
4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
5. There is little or no grammatical explanation; grammar is taught y inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation.
6. Skills are sequenced: listen, speak, read, and write.
7. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
8. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis.
9. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
10. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course.
11. Great importance is attached to pronunciation with special attention being paid to intonation.
12. The cultural background of the target language is stressed.
13. Some use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted.
14. Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
15. There is a great effort to prevent students’ errors.
16. There is a tendency to manipulate the language and disregard content.
Cognitive Approach
A reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audiolingual Approach.
1. There is emphasis on communication, or communicative competence (i.e. being able to use the language).
2. Language acquisition is seen as rule (not habit) formation, deductive explanation of grammar is preferred.
3. Pronunciation is de-emphasized, since it is considered futile for most students to try to sound like native speakers.
4. Group work and individualized instruction are encouraged.
5. There is a renewed interest in vocabulary, especially the expansion of passive of vocabulary for reading purposes.
6. The teacher is viewed as facilitator rather than a figure of absolute authority.
7. The importance of comprehension, especially listening comprehension is emphasized.
8. Errors are seen as inevitable by product of language learning, systematically study, interpretation and well possible, remediation are of concern.
9. The written language skills (reading and writing) and the spoken language skills (listening and speaking) are viewed as being of equal importance, rather than the former secondary and the later primary.
10. Repetition in and of itself is discouraged; silence is recognized as useful and often necessary.
11. There is contextualization of each teaching points through the use of audiovisual aids, stories or other appropriate means.
12. The use of mother tongue and translation is permitted.
13. There is increased interest in the affective domain; the attitude of the teacher and the students are seen as important, human sensitivity crucial, and the quality of interaction a significant variable.
14. Bilingual – bicultural proficiency is seen as an ideal goal.
An Eclectic Method
The following is quoted as part of an article complied by Haskell (ed.) in selected article from the TESOL Newsletter 1966 – 1983 (p.119).
An eclectic methodology (or approach) is one which utilizes the best (or most appropriate and useful) parts of existing methods. There is the danger of eclecticism, of creating of a Frankenstein monster rather than a Cinderella. The use of the term “an eclectic method” suggests, in one sense, the need for a single, best, method to follow. It also suggests inability to be eclectic.
As in the “pragmatic” approach of Oller and the ethnomethodology which Eskey finds appealing, there is a growing awareness among ESL teachers of the need to be concerned with teaching “appropriate” use of language. If not, an eclectic method, then, perhaps we can come to terms with some general principles or attitudes, some conclusion that can be drawn from current research and thinking in the field.
1. Language learning must be meaningful, real.
2. Translation is a specialized language skill and is inappropriate from the beginning language learner (and most teachers) to rely on as a method of learning. It is a truth that, though immediately useful, becomes harder and harder to throw away the longer it is used. As used in Counseling Learning, it may be a useful tool in establishing an initial basis for comfortable communication.
3. Language learning should be done in the target language.
4. Mimicry, memorization, and pattern practice do not “teach” language.
5. Reading aloud (oral reading) while useful during the decoding stage, doesn’t teach reading.
6. Vocabulary acquisition, the use of a large and varied vocabulary, should come early.
7. Reading and writing should not be delayed but taught as soon as the student is ready.
8. Teachers need not insist upon mastery of one pattern before moving on to another, nor the presentation of one item at a time, but should provide ample opportunity for reinforcement and continuous use of all patterns and structures in meaningful real contexts.
9. Most students’ errors are not caused by language interference (less than 10 percent according to Burt and Dulay, and then mostly in the area of pronunciation). Learning strategies, incorrectly applied, are the cause of some 67 percent of students’ errors. Attention should be placed on the regularities and the universals of language rather than differences.
10. The first step in any class/program should be to determine what the student needs to learn.
11. Second language students bring a great deal of experience and knowledge about language to their learning situation. Language learning is facilitated by helping the student relate to his own experience.
12. Communicative competences suggest that appropriateness and utility are crucial variables in language acquisition (and language must consider such things like kinesics, culture, stress, rhythm, intonation, and vowel reduction).
13. Language learning will not occur unless the student is able, wants to, and makes a personal commitment to learn. In whatever way you measure or define motivation, it will be the student’s choice and decision that determines his language-learning success. The expectation of the teacher and the program, and the support of the “community” will greatly influence that decision. Remember, “you can lead a horse, but you can’t make it drink” (unless it wants to drink).
Task 3
1. Discuss the strength and weaknesses of each method/approach.
2. Take an English teacher in your previous secondary school as an example. How would you describe his/her method or principle in TEFL?
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